Comparison of pelvic girdles in chameleons

by Alex Laube Science

The anatomy of chameleons is strongly adapted to their way of life. Tree-dwellers differ in many aspects from ground-dwellers. The pelvic girdle has been little studied anatomically in chameleons so far – a publication from the USA now deals with it in more detail.

For the study, the pelvic girdles of 22 chameleons were isolated from existing microcomputer tomography scans and displayed in 3D. These were measured to 16 different lengths and angles using software. Archaius tigris, Bradypodion damaranum, Calumma gallus, Calumma parsonii parsonii, Chamaeleo zeylanicus, Furcifer balteatus, Kinyongia matschiei, Kinyongia tavetana, Nadzikambia mlanjense and Trioceros quadricornis gracilior were assigned to tree dwellers. Brookesia brygooi, Chamaeleo namaquensis, Palleon nasus nasus, Rhampholeon temporalis and Rieppeleon brachyurus were attributed to ground-dwelling species. The species Bradypodion occidentale, Brookesia ebenaui, Chamaeleo anchietae, Furcifer campani, Rhampholeon spinosus, Rieppeleon kerstenii kerstenii and Trioceros goetzei goetzei were classified as semiarboreal. Mainly males were examined.

As expected, the evaluation showed that tree-dwelling chameleons had narrower, shorter girdles than ground-dwelling ones. The narrower pelvic girdle makes it easier to hide behind branches and flatten the body to the maximum. It also ensures that the body’s centre of gravity is closer to the branch and thus increases stability when climbing. Ground-dwelling chameleons, on the other hand, had larger and wider pelvic girdles. These allow them to step more quickly and provide greater stability when walking on ground surfaces.

How phylogeny and arboreality affect pelvic girdle anatomy of chameleons
Dakota J. John
Honors Thesis 299, University of South Dakota, 2023
DOI: none

The Arabian Chameleon in Abyan (Yemen)

by Alex Laube Verbreitung Science

The majority of overview studies on the occurrence of reptiles in Yemen date back to the 1990s. More recent research is mainly based on areas close to cities, but less on more remote regions. Two biologists from the Universities of Aden and Abyan have recently published a survey on the occurrence of reptiles in Abyan.

The Abyan governorate is located in the south of Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the Gulf of Aden to the south and the governorates of Aden, Lahji, Al Bayda, and Shabwa to the west, north and east. 44 areas in Abyan were surveyed within a whole year. Reptiles were caught by hand and some were merely documented, while others were killed and preserved. A total of 202 animals were examined.

A total of 24 different reptile species were found. Chamaeleo arabicus was found in the districts of Lawdar, Zinjibar, Khanfir and Jayshan. Of the 23 finds, most were made in western Khanfir, not far from the town of Zinjibar. Two chameleons were found in northern Lawdar and only one in southern Jayshan. The authors point out that the chameleons are mainly found in cultivated landscapes.

Distribution of lizards in Abyan Governorate, Yemen
Salem M. Busais, Wafa A. Abo-Alib, Hasan M. Alrahowi
Electronic Journal of University of Aden for Basic and Applied Sciences 4 (1), 2023
DOI: 10.47372/ejua-ba.2023.1.220

Aggressive fungal pathogen discovered in panther chameleons

by Alex Laube Tiermedizin Science

Fungi of the genera Nannizziopsis and Paranannizziopsis have long been known to cause severe skin diseases in various reptiles. These include species feared in herpetocolture such as CANV (Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii) and Nannizziopsis dermatitidis, which are apparently obligate pathogens. Now, a similar skin fungus has been detected in panther chameleons in Florida, USA.

Nine adult panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) were taken from a wild population in Florida. They were first housed in groups of two or three chameleons in screen cages with natural and artificial plants at a private keeper. A ReptiSun 5.0 lamp and a conventional light bulb were used. The animals were fed with crickets and zophobas every second day and supplemented with vitamins and calcium. All nine panther chameleons, plus a tenth that was captured later, were finally given to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for a series of experiments. They were kept individually in steel aviaries outdoors.

Subsequently, the eight remaining panther chameleons were also examined. In fact, all but one of the chameleons were found to have either missing claws or swelling of the hands and feet, small skin wounds, circumferential proliferation on the body and/or yellow and black skin lesions. Fungal PCR was no longer carried out, but infection with the same pathogen was suspected. All nine panther chameleons still alive were treated with 25 mg/kg terbinafine and 5 mg/kg voriconazole, both given orally once daily.

After six weeks, the panther chameleons were examined again. The skin lesions were still present, in two animals the hand and foot swellings had decreased. After eleven to twelve weeks of treatment, all symptoms had disappeared in seven chameleons. The skin lesions had developed into scars. Only two chameleons still showed swelling in the foot area, but less than at the beginning of treatment. After 14 weeks of therapy, another panther chameleon died. The autopsy revealed kidney and organ damage as the cause of death. Since the contribution of the medication used to the death of the chameleon could not be ruled out, the therapy was terminated in week 15 for six of the eight panther chameleons. The two panther chameleons that still showed swelling of the feet were treated for another two weeks.

This case report is the first detection of Paranannizziopsis australasiensis in chameleons. So far, this fungal pathogen has only been found in green iguanas and Eastern bearded dragons in herpetoculture and in Tuataras, skinks, geckos, and snakes in nature. It remains unclear where the panther chameleons became infected. Three of the screen cages used in the initial private husbandry had previously been inhabited by Veiled Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) and Knight Anoles. The private keeper had disinfected the terrariums with chlorine bleach. The rest of his reptile population showed no skin lesions. The aviaries used later at the USDA had been empty for years and had previously only been inhabited by small birds. It is possible that the fungal pathogen had been introduced via potted plants from nurseries that regularly observe native reptiles on the premises. However, Paranannizziopsis australasiensis has not been found in any other wild reptile species in Florida to date.

The most likely scenario seems to be that the chameleons were already infected before they were caught in Florida, but the disease only broke out later. The original animals of the population could have been infected by bearded dragons in the pet trade a good decade ago. A latent infection with a late onset is supported by the fact that most of the skin lesions in this case report were found in winter, after temperatures had dropped below 10°C. Moreover, before the onset of symptoms, so-called “thermal limit trials” were carried out, in which the animals were briefly exposed to extreme temperatures of up to 45°C and 6°C. Another chameleon from the same population was caught at a later time and also developed skin lesions, which indeed suggests an infected population in Florida.

A free-ranging chameleon population infected with Paranannizziopsis australasiensis could pose a huge risk to native reptiles. The fungal pathogen is known to be highly infectious and aggressive. In addition, free-ranging panther chameleons in Florida are now being captured by dealers and sold to private owners, which could result in the spread of the disease in private reptile populations. Further research is urgently needed to clarify the extent of the current occurrence of Paranannizziopsis australasiensis in Florida, both in herpetoculture and in the wild.

Dermatomycosis caused by Paranannizziopsis australasiensis in nonnative panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) captured in Central Florida, USA
Natalie M. Claunch, Colin M. Goodman, Madison Harman, Mariaguadalupe Vilchez, Savanna D. Smit, Bryan M. Kluever, James F.X. Wellehan, Robert J. Ossiboff, Christina M. Romagosa
Journal of Wildlife Diseases (4), 2023
DOI: 10.7589/JWD-D-22-00018

Chameleons at different altitudes of the Amber Mountain (Madagascar)

by Alex Laube Science

International scientists have intensively studied the different altitudes of the Amber Mountain and the amphibians and reptiles found there. The Amber Mountain (French Montagne d’Ambre) is a former volcanic massif in northern Madagascar. The mountain, which is up to 1475 m high, is mainly covered by rainforest, which belongs to the national park of the same name. To the north of the mountain is a dry forest that belongs to the Forêt d’Ambre Special Reserve. The north-western flank of the mountain has not yet been protected.

In the present work, amphibians and reptiles were observed and sampled over 12 km between 700 and 1470 metres altitude. The western slope of the Montagne d’Ambre at altitudes between 770 and 1290 m was also included in the study for the first time. In addition, animals were sampled in the Forêt d’Ambre from 470 m altitude. All animals found were measured. Cheek swabs, scales as well as live animals that had been euthanised were collected and genetically analysed. A total of 2631 observations of 34 species of amphibians and 48 species of reptiles were made. As expected, different animals occurred at different altitudes. The species richness of the Montagne d’Ambre was greatest at around 1000 m a.s.l. with 41 different species. Above 1100 m, about one third of the species found were locally endemic.

Two genetic clusters of the earth chameleon Brookesia tuberculata have been identified. Group 1 lives on the eastern flank of the Montagne d’Ambre at altitudes of 887 to 1170 m, group 2 at 1260 to 1455 m on the eastern flank and at 956 to 1150 m on the western slope of the Montagne d’Ambre. Group 1 showed a particularly high number of mitochondrial haplotypes, while group 2 had only one haplotype. The scientists assume that due to their small body size and high site fidelity, the species tends to form isolated groups rather than tree-inhabiting chameleons, which can overcome natural barriers more easily and thus move within a much larger environmental radius.

In Calumma linotum, the genetic differences between three groups at different altitudes were rather small. The measurement data of various body dimensions also showed no clear trend for this species at the different altitudes. Although Calumma linotum appeared to be slightly smaller at lower altitudes, this could have been due to subadult individuals misidentified as females. For Calumma amber and Calumma ambreense, body size decreased the higher the chameleons were found in the Montagne d’Ambre. This may be related to the cooler temperatures at higher altitudes, which contribute to slower growth. But it could also be that more younger animals were simply measured.

The study reveals interesting adaptations of different chameleon species to the altitudinal differences of the Montagne d’Ambre. It is possible that these are already the first indications of an early stage of speciation. The work also illustrates how important the different altitudinal levels are for species diversity.

Repeated divergence of amphibians and reptiles across an elevational gradient in northern Madagascar
Mark D. Scherz, Robin Schmidt, Jason L. Brown, Julian Glos, Ella Z. Lattenkamp, Zafimahery Rakotomalala, Andolalao Rakotoarison, Ricky T. Rakotonindrina, Onja Randriamalala, Achille P. Raselimanana, Safidy M. Rasolonjatovo, Fanomezana M. Ratsoavina, Jary H. Razafindraibe, Frank Glaw, Miguel Vences
Ecology and Evolution 13 (3)
DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9914

Movement pattern of Brookesia superciliaris

by Alex Laube Science

Until now, movement patterns in chameleons have mainly been studied in tree-dwelling species. The predominantly ground-dwelling genera such as Brookesia, Rhampholeon, Palleon and Rieppeleon, which represent about a third of all currently known chameleons, have only rarely been considered. A group of US researchers has now taken a closer look at the terrestrial chameleon Brookesia superciliaris.

The movement of living Brookesia superciliaris on different surfaces was measured and comparisons made with tree-dwelling chameleons and other lizards. Surprisingly, the terrestrial chameleons showed movement characteristics of both tree-dwelling and ground-dwelling animals. Brookesia superciliaris moved slower on branches than on substrate imitating soil. The gait speed was mainly regulated by the step frequency and not by the step length. Although at the beginning of a step the upper arm is strongly extended, a typical feature of aboreal locomotion, shoulder and hip movements on branches are less than usual for arboreal dwellers. This could indicate a predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. When Brookesia superciliaris moves very slowly, it often uses a very unusual step sequence and lapses into a passing gait. Brookesia superciliaris could be considered an example of an intermediate stage between ground and arboreal dwellers because of its early evolutionary split from the developmental lineage of other chameleons.

Locomotor characteristics of the ground-walking chameleon Brookesia superciliaris
Chukwuyem Ekhator, Arnavi Varshney, Melody W. Young, Daniel Tanis, Michael C. Granatosky, Raul E. Diaz, Julia L. Molnar
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A 339 (4), 2023
DOI: 10.1002/jez.2703

Spines of tree- and ground-dwelling chameleons

by Alex Laube Tiermedizin Science

Various anatomical adaptations of the spine between ground and tree dwellers are known from mammals, especially primates. In some cases, the different vertebrae are even associated with certain movement patterns and bodily functions. In a comparative study, two scientists from New York (USA) have now investigated how the spine of ground- and tree-dwelling chameleons differs.

They measured the already existing CT scans on Morphosource.org of a total of 28 chameleons of different species. Brookesia perarmata, Brookesia superciliaris, Brookesia thieli, Palleon nasus, Rhampholeon platyceps, Rhampholeon spectrum, Rieppeleon brevicaudatus and Rieppeleon kerstenii were classified as ground dwellers. Archaius tigris, Bradypodion melanocephalum, Bradypodion pumilum, Bradypodion thamnobates, Calumma amber, Calumma brevicorne, Calumma parsonii, Chamaeleo calyptratus, Chamaeleo gracilis, hamaeleo zeylanicus, Furcifer lateralis, Furcifer pardalis, Furcifer verrucosus, Kinyongia carpenteri, Kinyongia tavetana, Kinyongia xenorhina, Nadzikambia mlanjensis, Trioceros feae, Trioceros jacksonii and Trioceros quadricornis were considered arboreal. The vertebrae were counted and the width of the lamina, length, width, height of the vertebral body, and the height of the spinous process and transverse processes on each vertebra were measured. In addition, the so-called prezygapophysial angle was determined. This is the angle of the intervertebral joint, i.e. the contact surfaces between the individual vertebrae. The measurements of ground and tree dwellers were compared and statistically evaluated. Only the vertebral column of the trunk was considered, the caudal vertebral column was left out.

First of all, the results showed that ground-dwelling chameleons generally have fewer trunk vertebrae (15 to 19) than tree-dwelling chameleons (18 to 23). The trunk spine of almost all species could be divided into the already known three areas: Cervical spine and anterior and posterior dorsal spine. A thoracic and lumbar spine as in mammals is generally not distinguished in chameleons because of the continuous ribs. Five chameleon species had four regions instead of three: they had an anterior and a posterior cervical spine, the anterior one consisting of only two vertebrae with rib processes. Six chameleon species had two additional lumbar vertebrae and one species had three transitional vertebrae in the region between the cervical and dorsal spine. In Kinyongia carpenteri, a total of five regions could be distinguished in the trunk spine: The chameleon had anterior and posterior cervical vertebrae as well as anterior and posterior dorsal vertebrae and two additional lumbar vertebrae. Brookesia perarmata was also a special case: the trunk spine of this chameleon consisted of only two regions and at the same time the smallest number of vertebrae of all species studied.

The greatest differences between ground and tree-dwelling chameleons were found in the prezygapophyseal angle (PZA) and the height of the spinous process. The intervertebral joint surfaces in the anterior dorsal vertebrae of tree-dwelling chameleons were clearly more dorsoventrally oriented and smaller than in ground-dwelling species. Several tree-dwellers showed a PZA of less than 90°. In tree-dwelling chameleons, the largest spinous processes were located at the transition from the cervical to the dorsal spine. Among the ground-dwelling species, the spinous processes were similar only in Palleon nasus. In ground-dwelling chameleons, the appearance of the spinous process varied greatly. Rieppeleon, for example, showed narrow, backward-sloping spinous processes, while the spinous processes in Brookesia were more like a kind of bone bridge than a process. Archaius tigris was an exception: The spinous processes in this chameleon hardly differed along the entire spine.

The authors conclude from the results that the anatomy of the different vertebrae is strongly related to the chameleons’ way of life and different locomotion. The intervertebral joint surfaces in tree-dwelling chameleons are probably important for climbing by supporting the function of the shoulder girdle. Reduced mobility in the mediolateral plane provides greater trunk stiffness, which facilitates climbing in arboreal dwellers. Stiffening of the axial skeleton (skull, trunk spine and thorax) is also known from tree-dwelling mammals. The larger spinous processes in larger chameleons could facilitate shoulder girdle rotation and muscle movement, resulting in increased stride length, better head support, and thus possibly easier feeding.

Morphological and functional regionalization of trunk vertebrae as an adaption for arboreal locomotion in chameleons
Julia Molnar, Akinobu Watanabe
Royal Society Open Science 10, 2023: 221509
DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221509

Illustration: Spines of different chameleon species

Long-term study on sperm collection in chameleons

by Alex Laube Tiermedizin Science

Assisted reproduction has become increasingly common in the conservation of extremely rare animals such as the Spix’s macaw or northern white rhinoceros in recent years. In reptiles, on the other hand, there have only been a few studies on assisted reproduction, and only a few on chameleons in particular. Scientists from the USA have now conducted a study on male Veiled and Panther Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus and Furcifer pardalis).

At Louisiana State University, 16 males of each species were kept under standardised conditions for over a year. The panther chameleons were purchased from a US breeder, the Yemen chameleons from a dealer who had taken them from the introduced wild chameleon population in Florida. All males were kept individually in ZooMed screen cages, equipped with automatic sprinklers and artificial plants. Temperatures were around 28-29°C during the day with spots to seek higher values. 12 h UV-B irradiation per day was offered. They were fed with crickets and zophobas.

Before the start of the study, all 32 chameleons were clinically examined and parasites were treated. Only after a month of acclimatisation did the actual study begin. During the study year, all chameleons were put under anaesthesia twice a month. Each time, blood was taken from the ventral tail vein or the jugular vein to determine the testosterone concentration. Ultrasound was used to measure the size of the testicles. In addition, each time an attempt was made to obtain sperm by electroejaculation. Electroejaculation involved inserting a small metal probe into the cleaned cloaca. Each chameleon was then treated up to three times in succession with up to 15 electric shocks of 0.1/0.2/0.3 mAs. The semen collection experiments were stopped as soon as the animal ejaculated. The sperm collected was preserved and examined for ejaculate volume, presence of sperm, sperm motility, concentration, and morphology.

The results suggest that Veiled Chameleons follow a so-called prenuptial reproductive strategy under constant husbandry conditions. The testosterone concentration in the blood already increased before the sperm volume of the males had reached its maximum. The months of May, April, and June brought the best sperm volumes, the most sperm was produced by electroejaculations in the third attempt. Testicle sizes also varied throughout the year, with the largest measurements from August to December.

Panther chameleons, on the other hand, seem to follow a postnuptial reproductive strategy. In them, most sperm could only be obtained well after the highest point of testosterone concentration. The electroejaculations worked best in March, April, May and June. Much more often than in Yemen chameleons, electroejaculation in panther chameleons worked already in the first attempt. The size of the testicles also varied throughout the year, but most were largest in the months mentioned above. Together with the factors mentioned above, the volume of ejaculate, sperm concentration, sperm motility and sperm morphology also changed during the year.

The authors recommend that electroejaculation in chameleons should generally only be performed under anaesthesia. The success rate for spermatozoa in the two highest cases was 82 and 88%, which is similar to the success in other reptiles during their reproductive season. The mortality rate among the 32 animals was only 0.12% over the whole year. One panther chameleon died after 10 months during the 20th anaesthesia, after death kidney damage was detected. From the low mortality rate, the authors conclude that electroejaculation rather does not play a role in the development of kidney disease, as was suspected in other studies. However, an examination of the blood for kidney values was not carried out on any of the surviving chameleons after the study. It also remains unclear what role the lack of imitation of rainy and dry seasons during the year plays for both species and their reproductive cycle.

Characterizing the annual reproductive cycles of captive male veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) and panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis)
Sean M. Perry, Sarah R. Camlic, Ian Konsker, Michael Lierz, Mark A. Mitchell
Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 33 (1), 2023, pp. 45-60
DOI: 10.5818/JHMS-D-22-00037

Comparisons on limbs of Hadramaut agama and Veiled Chameleon

by Alex Laube Science

A Yemeni biologist at Al Saeed University recently took measurements on two different reptile species to compare their forelimbs and hindlimbs structurally and functionally. Both the Hadramaut Agama (Acantocercus adramitanus) and the Veiled Chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus) occur in the same habitats in Yemen, but they inhabit different microhabitats and move differently. While the agama lives mainly on the ground and in low bushes, the Veiled Chameleon is a pure tree dweller.

For the study, 10 specimens of each species were taken from the wild in Taiz. The head-torso length of the agamas ranged from 52 to 125 mm, and that of the chameleons from 90 to 200 mm. The animals were killed and the limbs were removed, stained, and then measured.

The structure of the limbs was basically the same in both species, but the hands and feet were clearly different. The Hadramaut Agama has five carpal bones, whereas, in the Veiled Chameleon, the distal carpal bones 2,3, and 4 are fused. Both species lack distal tarsal bones 2 and 5. The Veiled Chameleon lacks the sesamoid ossicles, which are variable in the agama. As expected, the long bones of the Veiled Chameleons were almost equally long on the forelimbs and hindlimbs, while in the agamas the forelimbs were significantly shorter than the hindlimbs. Overall, all long tubular bones were longer in the chameleon than in the Hadramaut Agama.

The skeletal characteristics of limb of two endemic lizard species (Acantocercus adramitanus and Chamaeleo calyptratus) in Yemen
Yaser H.A. Obady
Al-Saeed University Journal of Humanities and Applied Sciences 06 (1) 2023: pp. 188-210
DOI: 10.17161/randa.v30i1.18614

New distribution data on Chamaeleo zeylanicus

by Alex Laube Verbreitung Science

A biologist from India has published findings of the Indian Chameleon (Chamaeleo zeylanicus) that narrow down the distribution of the species more precisely. The Aravalli Mountains are located about 150 km west of the Indian capital New Delhi in northwest India. It runs for 670 km in a south-westerly direction, passing through three different states: Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. Until now, the Indian chameleon was thought to occur in the south and centre of Rajasthan, but was not common in the north, east, or west. So far, no findings had been documented from Haryana at all.

The biologist describes six observations of the Indian Chameleon between 2015 and 2022, during which Chamaeleo zeylanicus was seen four times in the Sariska Tiger Reserve and once each at Manesar and Damdama lakes, at altitudes between 223 and 476 m asl. The former is in northern Rajasthan, the two lakes not far from it in southern Haryana. The forest of the site in the Sariska Tiger Reserve is dominated by Indian lungwort (Adhatoda vasica), prairie mugwort (Parthenium integrifolium) and mesquite tree (Prosopis juliflora). The chameleons found in Haryana were found on roadsides with carira (Capparis decidua) and mesquite trees.

New distributional records of Asian Chameleons (Chamaeleo zeylanicus Laurenti 1768), from the Northern Aravali Hill range, India
Debaprasad Sengupta
Reptiles & Amphibians 30 (1), 2023: pp. 1-2
DOI: 10.17161/randa.v30i1.18614

Unusual parasite discovered in Furcifer campani

by Alex Laube Tiermedizin Science

Physiologists, microbiologists and veterinarians from the USA recently described an unusual case of a parasite infestation in Furcifer campani. This is probably the new discovery of an as-yet-undescribed chameleon parasite.

In 2021, 11 Furcifer campani had been imported from Madagascar as wild-caught specimens and were kept privately. Two months after importation, unusual behaviour was noticed in one male and one female of the group. The two animals basked in the sun for unusually long periods of time, specifically seeking out temperatures of 29-30°C as well as places with enormously high UV indices compared to the other chameleons. Within the next three months, both Furcifer campani visibly lost weight, although the food supply was increased and a good food intake could be observed. At the same time, a lighter skin colouration was noticed. Faecal examinations by flotation were negative. Finally, both chameleons became lethargic, and closed their eyes during the day. A bloated abdomen and increased watery faeces were observed. Both Furcifer campani died.

Histological examination confirmed muscle atrophy and cachexia. Massive infiltration of the liver and gastrointestinal tract with large amounts of spores could be detected in both chameleons. The spores proved positive in Grocott’s methenamine-based silver stain and the PAS stain. Morphologically, the spores were classified as Dermocystidium-like. Investigations by PCR revealed a high similarity with Dermocystidium salmonis, but the exact pathogen could not be determined with certainty.

The genus Dermocystidum is a parasitic microorganism that is classified as a protist (it is neither a fungus nor an animal or plant). It is interesting that they have so far been known mainly from fish and amphibians, occasionally also from mammals. So far, not a single case of infestation with Dermocystidium has been described from reptiles. It could therefore be an undescribed, new species that is possibly even chameleon-specific. Effective therapy is not yet known.

A unique disease presentation associated with a mesomycetozoean-like organism in the jeweled chameleon (Furcifer campani)
Michael Nash, Emily A. McDermott, Ashley K. McGrew, Juan Muñoz, Dayna Willems
Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery, February 2023
DOI: 10.5818/JHMS-D-22-00033

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