Invasive chameleons in subsaharan Africa

A Polish biologist has recently assessed the number of introduced reptile and amphibian species in sub-Saharan Africa.

Among the species introduced into other countries are also a number of chameleons: the panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) was introduced to Réunion before 1830. It is still found on the island today. The Cape dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion pumilum) was released in Namibia in the 1990s and established small populations in Swakopmund, Walvis Bay, Lüderitz and Windhoek. However, all these populations are now extinct. The Parsons’ chameleon (Calumma parsonii parsonii) was introduced from Madagascar to Mauritius in the 1960s. However, this did not result in a viable population. The frilled chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis) was introduced to the South African province of the Free State before 1978, but does not appear to have established a self-sustaining population there either. Finally, various species of dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion ssp.) were introduced to the Free State province in South Africa in 1939. They, too, failed to establish a permanent population.

Overall, lizards have been introduced into non-native countries in sub-Saharan Africa more than any other group (23 species), followed closely by amphibians (21 species) and snakes (14 species). Most introduced species are observed in South Africa, but also in Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands and surrounding islands. It is unclear whether introduced species are observed less frequently in African countries further north, or whether they are actually less prevalent there. Two-thirds of the introduced species that managed to establish their own populations originated from other regions of Africa or the surrounding islands, as well as the Middle East. The situation is quite different for species that were unable to reproduce after being introduced.

The earliest cases of species introduction in sub-Saharan Africa date back to the 17th century, including the four-clawed gecko (Gehyra mutilata) and the Mascarene frog (Ptychadena mascareniensis). With the advent of colonialism, the number of introduced species rose sharply. A further peak occurred from around the year 2000 onwards, coinciding with an increase in international trade.

There are many reasons why animals are transported unintentionally, but in most cases it happens by accident. Geckos and frogs, in particular, are frequently transported as stowaways in fruit shipments, in shipping containers, or in tourists’ luggage. Less commonly, reptiles and amphibians are deliberately released, as in the case of the Cape dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus capensis), which was released at a nursery. The release of reptiles and amphibians kept as pets does not usually lead to the establishment of breeding populations. Two cases of deliberate release for the purpose of biological control of other animal species are known, as are three deliberate releases for no apparent reason. The release of reptiles and amphibians kept as pets does not usually lead to the establishment of breeding populations. Two cases of deliberate release for the purpose of biological control of other animal species are known, as are three deliberate releases for no apparent reason.

The main potential problems posed by introduced species are the displacement of other native species, but also predation on native species. Hybridisation with native species occurs very rarely. The spread of diseases, such as parasitic infections, is a common problem. None of these problems have been reported in relation to introduced chameleons to date; however, there are very few studies on the subject in many places.

Herping the African Continent: Alien Amphibians and Reptiles in Sub-Saharan Africa
Grzegorz Kopij
Biology 2026, 15: 639
DOI: 10.3390/biology15080639
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Photo: A Furcifer pardalis on Réunion, photographed by Jason Berger, CC BY 4.0

Frugivory and temperature-regulated behaviour in the Knysna dwarf chameleon

by Alex Negro Beobachtungen Science

South African scientists have conducted an observational study into the behaviour of the Knysna dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion damaranum). The study was carried out in a park in George, in the Western Cape province. The park is mainly used by walkers, cyclists and dog owners for recreational purposes, meaning that the chameleons there are, to a certain extent, accustomed to people.

Six adult Bradypodion damaranum were found in the evening by torchlight and fitted with transmitters. The transmitters were attached to their flanks using tissue adhesive. During the day, one chameleon at a time was observed by a researcher for up to 4.5 hours, including those without transmitters. The chameleons fitted with transmitters were then located and the transmitters removed.

A total of 30 chameleons were observed, six of which were tagged and 24 untagged. As temperatures rose, peaking between 36 and 40°C around midday, a total of six Bradypodion damaranum were observed quickly retreating to shadier, lower-lying areas of the vegetation. Most of them turned noticeably paler than before. On another day, temperatures at sunrise were only 8°C. Several chameleons were observed moving very slowly towards sunny spots. Two were observed feeding at 12°C.

In addition, two Bradypodion damaranum were observed feeding on ripe berries from fruit bushes (Halleria lucida). Frugivory had not previously been recorded in this species. Another chameleon was observed consuming the flower of a Clutia pulchella. Overall, however, this appears to be a rare occurrence, as it was observed only a few times during 142 hours of observation.

Natural history observation of the Knsysna Dwarf Chameleon, Bradypodion damaranum (Boulenger, 1887): thermal extremes and feeding on flora
Krystal A. Tolley, Jody M. Barends, Wade K. Stanton-Jones, Graham J. Alexander
Herpetology Notes 19, 2026: 219-228.
DOI: not available
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Photo: A Bradypodion damaranum that has sought refuge from the rising temperatures on the trunk of a carmine-red bottlebrush (Callistemon citrinus), from the publication mentioned

The diet of dwarf chameleons in different habitats

by Alex Negro Science

Zoologists at the University of Johannesburg have recently investigated which prey items are consumed by dwarf chameleons in different habitats. To this end, they collected chameleons of the two species Bradypodion damaranum and Bradypodion ventrale in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. The animals were kept in captivity for a maximum of 24 hours until faeces were produced. A total of 22 faecal samples were obtained, eleven from each species. Of these, six faecal samples from each species came from natural habitats and five from peri-urban environments.

The various faecal samples were analysed using DNA techniques. Subsequently, statistical analyses were carried out to determine which different food components had been found in the various populations of dwarf chameleons.

41 different species of arthropods, as well as one species of worm, presumably from a dung beetle, were found in the faeces. The blowfly Stomorhina lunata was the most common prey species, closely followed by a tree bug (Glypsus conspicuus) and a predatory bug (Rhynocoris kumari). Both Bradypodion damaranum and Bradypodion ventrale fed mainly on beetles, dipterans, butterflies and leafhoppers.

To the scientists’ surprise, it turned out that the diet of the two chameleon species in different habitats hardly differed from one another. Overall, differences were observed primarily at the species level rather than the order level. Populations in natural habitats fed, among other things, on slightly more flies and arachnids, whilst those in urban environments relied more on butterflies. For the first time, lace-wings, thrips and caddiesflies were documented as prey for Bradypodion.

Peri-urban sustenance: unexpectedly broad overlap in dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion) diets between natural and transformed habitats
Matthew G. Adair, Peter R. Teske, Krystal A. Tolley
Urban Ecosystems 2026, 29:92.
DOI: not available
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Do different ecomorphs use different perches?

by Alex Negro Science

South African scientists have investigated whether the physique of a dwarf chameleon affects the branches it prefers to use. In South Africa, three different ectomorphs, or body types, are known among dwarf chameleons of the genus Bradypodion: First, there is the forest ecomorph. This ecomorph is found in closed canopy forests, is large with a long tail, but relatively gracile. Typical for the forest ecomorph are bright colours and conspicuous gular and and casque ornamentations. The second ecomorph is the ‘small brown chameleon’, which occurs in open habitats such as heathland, grass savannah or fynbos. As the name suggests, this type of chameleon is small, inconspicuous brown or greenish in colour and has reduced gular and casque ornamentation. The third ecomorph is the bushland ecomorph: chameleons in bushland or thickets that are large but generally rather heavy-bodied and short-tailed, rather inconspicuous in colour, but with conspicuous gular and casque ornamentation.

The scientists measured the diameter and angle of the branches used by different Bradypodion species. The following species were among the test subjects: B. barabtulum, B. baviaanense, B. caffrum, B. damaranum, B. ketanicum, B. melanocephalum, B. occidentale, B. pumilum, B. setaroi, B. taeniabronchum, B. thamnobates, B. transvaalense and B. ventrale, as well as the three candidate species ‘emerald’, “groendal” and ‘karkloof’. Chameleons from 38 different populations across South Africa were measured at night and sorted into one of the three body types mentioned above. In addition, branch diameters and angles were measured every 10 metres along randomly selected 100-metre-long transects within a radius of one metre.

The data was then statistically evaluated. Between 2007 and 2024, a total of 1,755 adult Bradypodion and their branches were measured. The forest ecomorph chameleons had access to a much greater variety of suitable branches in terms of diameter and angle than in the other two habitats. The chameleons did not show a preference for certain branches in the forest, but rather ‘used what was available’. The habitat of the ‘small brown chameleons’, on the other hand, had significantly more vertical, thinner branches than the forest, but these had a similar angle. The density of branches was highest in this habitat. However, the ‘small brown chameleons’ chose vertical and usually thicker branches significantly less often than would have been available in their habitat. In the shrubland, the scientists found more vertical and thinner branches than in the forest, and in terms of number, the branches did not differ from the open habitat such as fynbos, but differed in branch diameter. The shrubland ecomorph was larger than those ecomorphs of the other two habitats. It was noticeable that the female shrubland chameleons preferred to use thicker branches and also preferred fewer vertical branches than were available.

The study shows that different ectomorphs of dwarf chameleons in South Africa do indeed occupy different habitat structures.

Comparing perch availability and perch use between African dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion) ecomorphs
Jody M. Barends, Melissa A. Petford, Krystal A. Tolley
Current Zoology 71(5), 2025: 633-644
DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoae076
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Graphic: The three different ecomorphs, from the above-mentioned publication

Cape dwarf chameleons are ambush predators

by Alex Negro Beobachtungen Science

For a long time, only two types of foraging behaviour were distinguished: active foragers and sit-and-wait or ambush foragers. Many years ago, two publications classified chameleons as ‘cruise foragers’, i.e. hunters that move slowly through the bushes, stop to feed and then move on. A study from South Africa is now investigating whether this is true and whether other factors contribute to movement. In order to evaluate the mode of foraging, one would actually have to ‘factor out’ movement for regulating body temperature, evading predators or opponents, searching for females or mate guarding.

To this end, 38 tagged (12 of them radio-tagged) Bradypodion pumilum were tracked over 10 days in April and 10 days in February. The chameleons live in Brümmer Park in Stellenbosch in the Western Cape province. They were divided into 17 male, 19 female and 2 indeterminate Bradypodion pumilum. The animals were located every evening and every morning on the specified days using telemetry and the naked eye. Each chameleon was observed for 60 to 180 minutes at a time, with two to four observers using binoculars from a distance of 5 to 10 metres from the chameleon being observed. The researchers recorded movements and stationary behaviour and assigned the corresponding motivation to each movement, noting food intake and number of shots.

A total of 171 hours of observation time was accumulated. Bradypodion pumilum spent most of the day (over 75%) stationary on their branches in Brümmer Park. In the morning, over 80% of them were sitting around, with almost half of this time spent sunbathing, presumably to warm up, and the other half spent stationary in shady vegetation. During the observation period, 26 Bradypodion pumilum fed a total of 110 times. They ate significantly more often (over 80%) when they were not moving. A strong factor for movement was interaction with conspecifics – during the observations, one male was even chased away by a female, causing it to fall from the tree.

The authors conclude from their study that Bradypodion pumilum is more likely to be a ambush hunter.

A multi-index approach to assessing foraging mode: a case study using chameleons
Wade K. Stanton-Jones, Krystal A. Tolley, Jody M. Barends, Graham J. Alexander
Current Zoology, 2025, zoaf065
DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoaf065
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Photo: Bradypodion pumilum tagged with a transmitter from the study mentioned above

Comparisons between dwarf chameleons in South Africa

by Alex Negro Science

South African scientists have recently been investigating whether three closely related Bradypodion lineages in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa have evolved differently due to their different habitats or whether other causes are responsible.

The scientists are studying the two species Bradypodion ventrale from the Nama Karoo and Bradypodion taeniabronchium from the Elandsberg and Tsitsikamma Mountains and the fynbos of Thyspunt and Honeyville, as well as a population of dwarf chameleons from the fynbos of the Groot Winterhoek Mountains that has not yet been described as a separate species. The latter are often referred to as Bradypodion sp. ‘groendal’ because they occur in the Groendal Nature Reserve, among other places.

At night, chameleons were searched for using flashlights and the naked eye. Adult chameleons with a body length (SVL) of more than 36 mm were taken away overnight to be released back at the site where they were found the next day. All animals were measured accurately. Tissue samples were taken from the tip of the tail. In addition, the thickness and height of the branches on which the chameleons were found were measured. Further branch thicknesses were recorded along three 100 m long transects in each population. The data collected was statistically evaluated and the tissue samples were genetically examined.

A total of 232 chameleons were sampled for the study. Bradypodion taeniabronchium had significantly smaller head features than the other two species, but larger hands and feet. Bradypodion ventrale was larger overall than the others, but had longer limbs. Bradypodion taeniabronchium used the widest branches (average diameter 2.83 mm), but also the lowest (average height 82 cm above the ground). Bradypodion ventrale, on the other hand, used the thinnest branches (average diameter 1.52 mm), but the highest (average just under 93 cm above the ground).

The researchers found that all three populations of dwarf chameleons showed increased external similarity (convergence) when they occurred in the same habitats and less similarity (divergence) when they occurred in different habitats. The dwarf chameleons preferred certain branch thicknesses depending on their population, even though other branches were also available in their habitat. Finally, the authors point out that all the evidence available so far suggests that the as yet undescribed dwarf chameleons of the Groendal Nature Reserve represent a separate species.

Ecological factors promote convergent evolution and ecological speciation in dwarf chameleons (Bradypodion)
Krystal A. Tolley, Devon C. Main, Keith M. Dube, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren, Jessica M. da Silva
Zoosystematics and Evolution 101(3) 2025: 1227-1247
DOI: 10.3897/zse.101.151926

Photo: Bradypodion ventrale, from the publication cited

UV fluorescence in dwarf chameleons

by Alex Negro Science

Chameleons have window-like, translucent scales over certain bony processes, especially on the head. If the bone is illuminated with UV light at these points, the areas light up. It has previously been assumed that this UV fluorescence or the fluorescent tubercles are used for intra-species communication. South African scientists have now investigated this further in dwarf chameleons.

Five Bradypodion species in different habitats (fynbos, forest, bushland) were studied.

If the fluorescent tubercles are used for communication between males and females during reproduction, one would have to assume that their number differs greatly between males and females. Chameleons that live in a dense forest should also have more of them than animals in open terrain that is easy for predators to see.

The result of the study is quite astonishing: the larger sex of each of the different dwarf chameleon species had the higher number of fluorescent tubercles. Bradypodion of the same size, on the other hand, always had approximately the same number of fluorescent tubercles on their heads. The different habitats did not appear to have any influence on the number of fluorescent tubercles. There was also no difference between habitats heavily influenced by humans, such as gardens, and near-natural, unspoilt landscapes.

The authors conclude that the fluorescent bone tubercles in South African dwarf chameleons are probably not used for communication. It remains to be seen whether this is also the case in other chameleon species.

Body size, not habitat or sex, best explains the extent of ultraviolet fluorescence in African dwarf chameleons (Bradypodion)
Jody M. Barends, Wade K. Stanton-Jones, Graham J. Alexander, Krystal A. Tolley
Journal of Zoology
DOI: 10.1111/jzo.70032

The microbiome in the gut of South African dwarf chameleons

by Alex Negro Science

The term microbiome has been on everyone’s lips for some years now. In the intestine, this refers to the entirety of all microorganisms, especially bacteria, that colonise the mucous membrane. Now a group of researchers in South Africa has for the first time studied the gut microbiome in chameleons and how it changes in different habitats.

Three species of dwarf chameleons were searched for at night in the province of KwaZulu Natal with the help of torches: Bradypodion melanocephalum, Bradypodion thamnobates and Bradypodion setaroi. All animals were kept in containers for 24 hours and then released at the site. For each species, 10 buccal swabs and 10 faecal samples were collected in a natural and an urban habitat, resulting in a total of 120 samples. In the laboratory, DNA was extracted from the samples, amplified by PCR and then sequenced. Phylogenetic trees were created and statistical comparisons were made between the samples.

The samples were also analysed for zoonotic pathogens such as salmonella. However, only Campylobacter, Escherichia and Serratia were detected in human pathogens in the faeces. The authors conclude that the zoonotic potential of the microbiome of dwarf chameleons is very low.

In total, almost 350 different bacterial species were detected in the microbiome of the dwarf chameleons, which corresponds to other reptiles such as anoles and turtles. Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Bacteroidota were most abundant in all samples. Overall, the microbiome was very similar in both buccal swab and faecal samples with only a few exceptions and slightly different depending on the species. The differences in the microbiome between natural and urban habitats were much smaller than expected. The microbiome of the buccal swab of Bradypodion melanocephalum living in urban environments showed more Caulobacteraceae and less Enterococcaceae than that in natural habitats, and Desulfovibrionaceae were more common in the faeces of urban animals. The microbiome of Bradypodion thamnobates showed more Ruminococcaceae and Akkermanisaceae in the faecal samples of urban chameleons. A striking feature of dwarf chameleons is the difference between the microbiota in the mouth and rectum, which has not yet been observed in other vertebrates. It remains to be seen whether chameleons in the animal kingdom have a specialized microbiome that could explain these differences.

Anthropogenic reverberations on the gut microbiome of dwarf chameleons (Bradypodion)
Matthew G. Adair, Krystal A. Tolley, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren, Jessica Marie da Silva
PeerJ 13, 2025
DOI: 10.7717/peerj.18811

Photo: Bradypodion melanocephalum, photographed by Marius Burger

Utilisation of flap-necked chameleons at urban markets in South Africa

by Alex Negro Science

Scientists from the African Amphibian Conservation Research Group have analysed the existing literature on the subject. Fortunate M. Phaka also visited six municipal markets in Durban, Johannesburg, Petermaritzburg, Polokwane and Pretoria. At the markets, he searched for amphibians and reptiles sold for medicinal purposes and the names given to them by the vendors. He was able to interview 11 traditional health practitioners in Limpopo, Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal in detail, from nine of whom he was allowed to take samples of the amphibians and reptiles sold for species identification.

In total, 33 species of reptiles and one species of amphibian used for traditional medicine were identified. Nine of these were found and identified on site during the market visits. The traditional healers interviewed stated that they had either hunted the animal parts themselves, bought them from hunters or taken them from roadkill. Fat and internal organs are removed, the carcasses are rubbed with ash or salt and dried in the sun. Usually, the healers’ customers do not buy complete carcasses, but only small parts of the reptiles on offer. Of the 111 animal samples taken, sufficient DNA to identify the species was obtained from 90 of them. 23% of the samples tested were incorrectly named by the healers.

Chamaeleo dilepis was among the reptile species utilised. No complete chameleon could be found at the markets visited. At the Warwick Muthi Market in KwaZulu-Natal, however, several reptile parts were sampled which, according to DNA comparisons, came from lobed chameleons. Chameleons in general were not identified to species level by the healers. The IsiZulu word unwabu stands for any chameleon.

Barcoding and traditional health practitioner perspectives are informative to monitor and conserve frogs and reptiles traded for traditional medicine in urban South Africa
Fortunate M. Phaka, Edward C. Netherlands, Maarten Van Steenberge, Erik Verheyen, Gontran Sonet, Jean Hugé, Louis H. du Preez, Maarten P.M. Vanhove
Molecular Ecology Resources Vol 25(2), 2025
DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.13873

Dwarf chameleons in South Africa larger in urban environments than in the wild

by Alex Negro Science

Dwarf chameleons of the genus Bradypodion from South Africa have long been known to adapt very well to urban habitats. Two scientists from Cape Town and Johannesburg have now investigated how different populations differ in body size, body weight and body condition score within urban and natural environments.

A total of 1107 individuals of five different dwarf chameleon species were studied over a period of four years. Bradypodion damaranum in George (Western Cape), Bradypodion melanocephalum in Durban (KwaZulu-Natal), Bradypodion setaroi in St Lucia (KwaZulu-Natal), Bradypodion thamnobates in Howick (KwaZulu-Natal) and Bradypodion ventrale in Jeffrey’s Bay (Eastern Cape) were each searched at night at three to eight locations. Forest fragments, grass savannahs or coastal bushland less than 15 km from the centre of the nearest town were classified as ‘natural sites’. All sites located within a city and consisting of both introduced and native flora regularly cut back by humans (gardens, public parks and green spaces, roadsides) were categorised as ‘urban’. The dwarf chameleons found were measured, weighed, sexed and marked with a felt-tip pen to avoid duplicate measurements on the same animals. Obviously pregnant females were not measured.

Statistical analyses and comparisons revealed that the chameleons at natural sites were always smaller and lighter on average than the populations of the same species at urban sites. Significantly larger and heavier in the city were both sexes in Bradypodion damaranum, the males in Bradypodion melanocephalum, ventrale and setaroi and the females in Bradypodion thamnobates. The body condition score was higher in urban areas for both sexes of Bradypodion damaranum and setaroi and males of Bradypodion melanocephalum than for the chameleons in natural habitats. In Bradypodion ventrale and thamnobates, there were no differences in body condition score between the different populations.

Research into exactly how these exciting differences come about is still pending.

Big cities, big bodies: urbanisation correlates with large body sizes and enhanced body condition in African dwarf chameleons (Genus: Bradypodion)
Jody M. Barends, Krystal A. Tolley
African Zoology 2024, 59(3)
DOI: 10.1080/15627020.2024.2402256

Photo: Bradypodion melanocephalum, photographed by suncana, licence Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International

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